Prison Reduction Initiative for COVID-19 and Emergencies (PRICE)
Prison Reduction Initiative for COVID-19
and Emergencies (PRICE)
David Carrier
Criminal Justice program
design for:
[CJ 751] Criminal Justice
Policy and Planning
April 2021
---------------------
Topic
Overview and Problem Summary
The Prison Reduction Initiative for
COVID-19 and Emergencies (PRICE) is a program design made to reduce prison
population in the United States. Mass incarceration is defined by Oxford
Bibliographies as the current American experiment in incarceration, which is
defined by comparatively and historically extreme rates of imprisonment[1] and by the concentration
of imprisonment among young, African American men living in neighborhoods of
concentrated disadvantages[2]. There is no single reason
for prison overcrowding, rather it is reliant on a variety of factors including
politics, policies, policing, and economic strategies within impoverished
communities. Understanding what mass incarceration is and how it came to be will
provide context to complete this program design process.
The prison population began to grow
in the 1970’s when politicians from both parties used fear and thinly veiled
racial rhetoric to push increasingly punitive crime control policies[3]. Crime control became a
hot topic in U.S. politics, and both the Democrat and Republican parties were
determined to win the spotlight. In 1971, the Republican party claimed the
first of these efforts as President Nixon declared the War on Drugs. This was a
global campaign led by the U.S. with military aid and intervention on drug and
gang/cartel prohibition. The goal of the War on Drugs was to reduce the illegal
drug trade in the U.S. by at least 60%. By reducing drug trade, overall crime
statistics were also expected to go down. However, the actions of the War on
Drugs hurt domestically more than anywhere else. Two presidents after Nixon,
President Reagan continued the campaign in daring fashion. The U.S. prison
population almost doubled in Reagan’s eight years as president[4]. Following the end of the
War on Drugs, it was the Democratic party’s turn to strike. The 1994 Crime
Bill: Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act was passed under the
leadership of President Clinton. The bill gave states funding to enact “tough
on crime” policies that gave further rise to prison populations[5]. The War on Drugs and 1994
Crime Bill exploded the U.S. prison population by focusing on punitive justice
rather than rehabilitation in the correctional setting. Policies that channeled
this ideology included[6]:
· Three
Strikes Laws – mandated a sentence of 25 years to life after conviction of an individual’s
third felony
· Mandatory
Minimum Sentencing – laws that dictate minimum sentencing strip judges of the
ability to account for individual circumstances
· Problematic
probation and parole – strict rules regarding probation and parole cause many
people to be sent back to prison for minor violations
· Private
prisons leading to profit motive – private prisons and a vast number of private
vendors are financially incentivized to maintain mass incarceration
Because
of the various policies and motives generated throughout the years, prison
overcrowding had become a substantial problem in the criminal justice system. The
United States is one of the top countries in the world for number of people
incarcerated and for money spent on incarcerated individuals. In fact, the U.S.
incarcerates the most people per capita than any other nation at 655 people per
100,000. The U.S. spends almost $182 billion USD ever year, while incarcerating
nearly 1% of the world’s adult population[7]. The term mass
incarceration was coined to help explain this irregular phenomenon, and recent
political action has been taken to reduce the prison population in the U.S.
However, the problem is still at its peak, and recent global events have shown
a new level of importance in reducing the prison population.
The COVID-19 pandemic is an ongoing
global pandemic of the coronavirus disease, consisting of severe acute
respiratory complications. COVID-19 is spread easily between individuals
through respiratory droplets produced by coughing, sneezing, laughing, and
talking[8]. The droplets, depending
on their size, can stay in the air and be inhaled by nearby individuals, or
land on a surface in which the virus will live up to three days or more. Anyone
who touches an infected surface and then touches their face, especially their
eyes, mouth, and nose, can contract the virus. Obviously, this can pose as a
huge issue for incarcerated individuals, especially in the growing number of
prisons that are overpopulated. Prisons are one of the worst places to be with
a virus such as COVID-19, solely due to the number of individuals confined to
one space and the amount of rotation between shared spaces[9]. Prisoners are frequently transferred
from cells, jail yards, cafeteria, facilities, and more. When someone is
convicted of a crime and sent to prison, that person could have been exposed on
the outside and now have brought COVID-19 into the prison. Additionally, the
constant rotation of guards within the facility go home every single day. They
usually interact with their family, and even if they do not leave their house,
their family has likely interacted with others outside of the house. If any of
the guards were to contract COVID-19 on the outside and bring it back to the facility,
this would pose a significant threat to the prison’s population[10]. Prisons have taken steps
to help prevent the spread of the virus, including cancelling visitors from the
outside, sanitize routinely, and enlist guidelines to address the pandemic.
However, it is practically useless when considering the amount of movement and
direct contact prisoners have with each other and with the guards. Reducing
prison populations, starting with those most vulnerable to COVID-19, is a key
element to protecting the sanctity of justice, and is a starting point to
ending mass incarceration.
---------------------
Target
Population
The
PRICE program will focus its target population on state prisoners only.
Current
state prison population in the U.S.: 1,300,000.
Prisoners
assisted through PRICE (minimum):
150,500 / 3 years of operation (including
PAC year[11])
Primary
Target Population: the first population that will be affected by this program (PAC year & beyond)
· Elderly
[20,000 limit + minimum eligibility][12]
o
65+ years old[13]
· Critically
ill, imminent death [no limit + minimum eligibility]
o
Current illness (ex. pneumonia, cancer)
· Organ
transplant patients [no limit + minimum eligibility]
· Immunocompromised
[100,000 + minimum eligibility]
o
HIV/AIDS[14]
o
Heart disease, lung disease, etc.
o
Currently has a specific immune system
disease (ex. congenital IgA[15])
Secondary
Target Population: the second population that will be affected by this program (1 ½ year & beyond)
· Previous
critical illness [30,000 + minimum eligibility]
o
Ex. cancer survivor
o
Recovered from critical illness past 6
months
· Pregnant
women [500 + minimum eligibility][16]
o
Any stage of pregnancy
Minimum
Eligibility:
· Primary
Target Population must not be previously sentenced to
o
Capital Punishment
o
Life without possibility of parole
· Secondary
Target Population must not be convicted of an offense involving
o
Homicide (murder, manslaughter)
o
Rape/sexual assault
o
Arson
o
Assault with a deadly weapon
o
Weapons (use in act for violent, property,
or drug)
Minimum
Eligibility Discretionary Case Guidelines:
Good
behavior set upon as currently defined, absolutely necessary for consideration
of immediate or delayed parole upon program completion.
If
parole is violated, individual will immediately be disqualified from the
program and serve the original full sentence in prison +3 months for parole
violation, +6 months if crime is committed as/during parole violation plus sentence
of crime.
Highest
offense counted: i.e. intoxication during armed robbery not applicable to Drug
category, applicable to Violent crime/Weapons use category
· Homicide,
Rape/Sexual Assault, Arson ONLY applies to Primary Target Population
o
Age 65+ must have served 2/3 years minimum
of their total sentence
§
Fully/Partially restricted house arrest 1
year (or remainder of sentence if >1 year)
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program (unspecified)
o
Age 40-64 must have served 2/3 years
minimum of their total sentence
§
Fully restricted house arrest 6 months (or
remainder of sentence if >6 months)
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion unlikely
§
Possibility of delayed parole upon further
sentencing serve likely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program
(unspecified)
o
Age 18-39 must have served 1/3 years
minimum of their total sentence
§
Fully restricted house arrest 6 months (or
remainder of sentence if >6 months)
§
No possibility of full parole upon program
completion
§
Possibility of delayed parole upon further
sentencing serve unlikely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program
(unspecified)
· Assault
with a deadly weapon, Weapons (use in act for violent, property, or drug) ONLY
applies to Primary Target Population
o
Age 65+ must have served 1/3 years minimum
of their total sentence
§
Partially restricted house arrest 1 year
(or remainder of sentence if >1 year)
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program
(unspecified)
o
Age 40-64 must have served 2/3 years
minimum of their total sentence
§
Fully/Partially restricted house arrest 6
months (or remainder of sentence if >6 months)
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program
(unspecified)
o
Age 18-39 must have served 1/3 years
minimum of their total sentence
§
Fully/Partially restricted house arrest 6
months (or remainder of sentence if >6 months)
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion unlikely
§
Possibility of delayed parole upon further
sentencing serve likely
§
Must enter rehabilitation program
(unspecified)
· Assault
o
Age [any] must serve partial house arrest
for remainder of sentence if >1 year + retain probationary period OR
enter and successfully complete anger management program and courts will
dismiss probationary period
o
If remaining sentence is <1 year, 6
months partial house arrest + return to prison OR 6 months partial house
arrest + enter and successfully complete anger management program and courts
will dismiss probationary period
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
· Weapons
(possession), Property (w/o weapon use)
o
Age [any] must serve partial house arrest
for remainder of sentence if >1 year + retain probationary period
o
If remaining sentence is <1 year, 4
months partial house arrest
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
· Drug
(use/distribution)
o
Age [any] must serve partial house arrest
for remainder of sentence if >1 year + retain probationary period OR
enter and successfully complete drug rehabilitation program and courts will
dismiss probationary period
o
If remaining sentence is <1 year, 4
months partial house arrest
§
Possibility of full parole upon program
completion likely
· All
other minor offenses, Drug possession and misdemeanor drug use, etc.
o
Age [any] must serve partial house arrest
for remainder of sentence if >1 year + retain probationary period OR
enter and successfully complete drug rehabilitation program and courts will
dismiss probationary period
o
If remaining sentence is <1 year, 4
months partial house arrest
§ Possibility
of full parole upon program completion likely
Parole
Information:
Full
House Arrest- home incarceration
Partial
House Arrest- home confinement/curfew
Full/Partial
House Arrest- parole board decision
PRICE
sets guidelines for Full and Partial House Arrest based on empirical research and
general parole procedures[17][18]. Full/Partial House
Arrest is noted for groups of individuals who may receive either. These
guidelines are set to protect the PRICE program and the community, to prevent
miscommunication or misinformation in parole board decisions that could result
in negative outcomes.
EVERY PRISONER MUST SEE THE STATE PAROLE
BOARD FOR SPECIFIC GUIDELINES AND FINAL DETERMINATION BEFORE RELEASE.
Awareness,
Selection, & Screening
An
initial PRICE Program Awareness Campaign (PAC) to spread the program
information to state prisons across the U.S. will be funded to last around one
(1) year. The PRICE PAC will reach out to State political officials for
networking and state prison administrations for an initial information session.
In this meeting, PRICE PAC will notify the State and state prisons of the
specific program details, costs, and dedicated comprehensive support for those
facilities that wish to participate. The average state prisoner in 45 states
across the U.S. costs $33,300[19]. Participation in the
program could reduce both annual cost and prison population of the facility. If
the administration is interested in the program, a formal meeting will take
place between PRICE officials and the state prison administration to review and
sign legal proceedings. There will be no limit to amount of state prisons per
State that can participate in the program. More state prisons may join the
program after the one-year PAC.
Stage
1, RECRUITMENT. All prisoners must qualify under one of the two Target
Population groups. To be recruited to the program, prisons*, prisoners or their
representative (lawyer, guardian, doctor/nurse, etc.) must provide the program
valid medical documentation that will satisfy the criteria of one or both of the
two Target Population groups. This documentation will be verified by medical
and legal professionals and signed by the PRICE staging committee to advance
the prisoner to Stage 2.
Stage
2, SCREENING. The prisoner must pass a risk/needs assessment conducted and verified
by the rehabilitation committee[20]. From there, all
qualifying prisoners must satisfy both Minimum Eligibility and corresponding
Discretionary Case Guidelines. To successfully complete the screening process, prisons[21], prisoners or their
representative (lawyer, guardian, doctor/nurse, etc.) must provide the program
valid court documentation regarding their case. The PRICE staging committee
will review the prisoner’s case details and verify the accuracy with the
courts. Any significant fabrications or misleading details in initial
documentation will result in automatic disqualification of the prisoner from
the program. If a prisoner is selected to the screening process and cannot
organize valid court documentation for financial or other reasons, the prisoner
must submit a letter to PRICE regarding this information; the PRICE staging
committee will review the court case information separately. If a recruited
prisoner successfully passes the screening committee’s qualifications, they
will be entered into one of two selection pools (Target Population) depending
on their medical status.
Stage
3, SELECTION. All qualifying prisoners at this point have been verified to have
a medical condition that meets one of the two Target Population groups and have
met the Minimum Eligibility and corresponding Discretionary Case Guidelines.
Qualifying prisoners will be placed in their selection groups based on the
highest significant medical status. Example: if a prisoner had pneumonia 3
months ago but is an organ transplant patient (either former or current), they
will be placed in the Primary Target Population. If it was just that they had
pneumonia 3 months ago, they will be placed in the Secondary Target Population.
The PRICE staging committee will choose individuals from their respective
groups based on the order in which they were placed into a Target Population.
Program
Components
PRICE
Committee’s:
Board
of Directors/Administration
Runs
the daily operations of PRICE, sets goals and objectives, handles finances,
employment, and all other administrative duties as assigned. Evaluates program
monthly to determine effectiveness of program and provide comprehensive summary
of results to top officials and funding partners. The original committee of
PRICE, operates or organizes the hiring of independent operators of the
one-year PRICE PAC.
Key
staff-Chief Executive Operator: maintains operational efficacy and the
face of the program; facilitates weekly meetings between directors; keeps
program on track towards goals and objectives while changing/creating goals and
objectives; makes desired outcomes clear and concise; organizes program-wide
meetings and events; manages funding partner relationships; assists in
digesting monthly evaluations of program.
Staging
Runs
the three stages of intake: Recruiting, Screening, and Selection. Follows
specific guidelines set by the PRICE program for prisoner intake. Conducts the
initial risks/needs assessment for applicants to the program[22]. Works closely with
professionals in the legal and medical profession; members may be experienced
in the legal and medical profession. Keeps clear and documented communication
with prison administration, parole board, and parole committee on prisoner
placement and parole recommendation.
Key
staff-Staging Director: will have enhanced knowledge in the
legal/medical profession as to provide insight and organize meetings to
determine placement of prisoners; primary communicator between committee and
Board of Directors.
Parole
Works
closely with legal professionals and the staging committee to determine
appropriate parole guidelines. Works closely with state parole board to
determine precise guidelines that work for the prison, PRICE program, and
prisoner. Sets appointments for individuals to receive a vaccination to fulfill
one of the three key Parole COVID-19 Requirements. Mandates house arrest and
quarantine guidelines to fulfill one of the three key Parole COVID-19
Requirements. Works closely with local law enforcement, documents confirmed
communication to local law enforcement for prisoners deemed dangerous by a full
house arrest status or state parole board. For prisoners on temporary parole,
the parole committee determines the length of temporary parole based on the
Minimum Eligibility Discretionary Case Guidelines and the transfer of prisoner
back to the state prison. For prisoners on designated parole and prisoners
moving to a probationary period, parole committee documents communication to
state prison and the courts, either who will designate further procedures for
the prisoner once their parole sentence has been fulfilled.
STATE
PRISONS AGREE TO THE POSSIBILITY OF THE PAROLE COMMITTEE, THROUGH APPROVAL OF
THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS, ASSIGNING SPECIFIC PAROLE OFFICERS/ORGANIZATIONS TO
INMATES.
Key
staff-Parole Director: experienced in corrections to provide familiar
insight towards the committee; asserts parole guidelines are clear and
concise to parole officer and prisoner; confirms that all
guidelines for parole will be followed; maintains documented communication between
state parole board, courts, and local law enforcement; determines if specific
prisoners need extra attention; primary communicator between committee and
Board of Directors.
Rehabilitation
Responsible
for organizing and entering prisoner into a rehabilitation program that fits
the Minimum Eligibility Discretionary Case Guidelines and a risk/needs
assessment. Prisoners with lesser charges may have the option to choose a
rehabilitation program to exchange part of their sentence or the way in which
it is served. It is the sole duty of the rehabilitation committee to provide
adequate choice to the prisoner for rehabilitation programs based on their
crimes. Documenting the decisions made in this process is crucial to keeping
track of an individual’s sentence, and documentation of the program progress is
crucial to evaluating it as a viable option for the PRICE program.
Key
staff- Rehabilitation Director: understands corrections and the need for
a rehabilitative approach; understands the various rehabilitation programs and
what they can offer to specific individuals; understands the Minimum
Eligibility Discretionary Case Guidelines and how to organize committee around intervention
within such guidelines; have a system of communications and documentation for
prisoner program-entry and program progress; provide insight to the Board of
Directors on successful or unsuccessful programs, policies, or prisoner parole
guidelines; primary communicator between committee and Board of Directors.
Parole
COVID-19 Requirements:
These
are specific requirements for prisoners who are participating in the PRICE
program. These individuals are being released on either temporary or full
parole because of their medical condition in the COVID-19 pandemic. Because of
this, these individuals will be required to adhere to the following:
· Vaccine
Required
to receive any of the current or future available COVID-19 vaccinations. The
vaccination must occur within the first two months of parole and will be
assigned by the PRICE parole committee.
· Quarantine
All
individuals are required to follow basic quarantine guidelines as asserted by
the CDC, even if on partial house arrest (home confinement/curfew). Prisoners
are being conditionally released for medical reasons regarding their safety in
the COVID-19 pandemic. Home quarantine is meant to be the safer option as
opposed to prison. Prisoners will be notified of this and the immediate
punishment that will befall on them if parole guidelines are broken. There are
no second chances!
· Rehabilitation
Depending
on offender status based on the Minimum Eligibility Discretionary Case
Guidelines, an individual may be required to or optionally decide to attend a
rehabilitation program. The PRICE rehabilitation committee oversees this
movement and program placement.
Offender
Risks/Needs Assessment
There
will be a risks/needs assessment for applicants and participants of the PRICE
program. The assessment will be held by the rehabilitation committee to
determine if the individual is a significant threat to themselves or to others.
This assessment will be formatted similar to federal prison system risks/needs
assessments[23],
and will look for similarities in the state corrections assessment that was
conducted upon the prisoner’s arrival, or, if arrival was within 6 months, use
the state corrections assessment as is. If there was no state corrections
assessment, the rehabilitation committee will compare the results with other
in-state prison risks/needs assessments. The rehabilitation committee will confirm
or deny participation in the program. If the prisoner is not deemed a threat to
themselves or others based on the assessment, they may continue with the
staging committee to be entered into PRICE. The rehabilitation committee will
use the assessment to determine a specific rehabilitation program if the offender
is required to be placed in one, or chooses to be entered in one. Any offender
may submit a request for a specific rehabilitative program, but admission to
that program is not guaranteed depending on risk/needs assessment and the program
capacity at that time.
Program
Completion
An
offender is considered “complete” from this program when they are either
a) released on probation
b) sent back to prison
c) die of natural/other causes
An
offender that disqualifies themselves from the program is not considered a part
of the “complete” statistic and is instead counted towards the “regression”
statistic. The PRICE program expects a 95% complete statistic in the first 3
years (including PAC year), with regression falling no higher than 20%.
A
Note from the Creator
Participation
in this program is completely voluntary, though strict guidelines will be
enforced to keep offenders from taking advantage of an already advantageous
opportunity. This program is not like compassionate release, it is meant to be
an alleviation on the overcrowded United States prison system in the time of a
global pandemic. The COVID-19 virus is unlike many virus’s civilization has
seen in its past, and extra caution is needed to protect the lives of everyone.
It is morally irresponsible, arguably even negligent, to let hundreds of
thousands of people sit in overcrowded prisons with pre-existing conditions
that can very easily become fatal if they contract COVID-19. The virus feeds
off groups of contained individuals, making prisons a death trap for those who
may already be too weak to withstand it. Mass incarceration has been a problem
for some time now, but emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic give us an
opportunity to reflect on our systems and policies. Not only that, but this
program saves money. Lots of it. The average state prisoner costs the
hardworking taxpayer $33,300 annually. If this program reaches its minimum
projections, we are looking at saving $3.5 billion per year. Support for this
program will result in lives and money saved, a win-win if you ask me. It will
help us turn the United States criminal justice system away from punitive
justice and back towards effective rehabilitation practices. America is known
for being the best country in so many aspects, we cannot let incarceration be
our weak spot. Support the Prison Reduction Initiative for COVID-19 and
Emergencies.
References
Beck,
A.J.; Blumstein, A. (2018). Racial Disproportionality in U.S. State Prisons:
Accounting for the Effects of Racial and Ethnic Differences in Criminal
Involvement, Arrests, Sentencing, and Time Served. J Quant Criminol 34,
853–883. Doi: 10.1007/s10940-017-9357-6
Cullen,
J. (2018, July 20). The History of Mass Incarceration. Brennan Center
for Justice. The
History of Mass Incarceration | Brennan Center for Justice
FairFightInitiavtive.org.
(2021, February 12). The History, Causes, and Facts on Mass Incarceration.
Fair Fight Initiative. The
History, Causes, and Facts on Mass Incarceration (fairfightinitiative.org)
James,
N. (2018). Risk and Needs Assessment in the Federal Prison System. Congressional
Research Service. Risk-and-Needs-Assessment-in-the-Federal.pdf
(justiceroundtable.org)
Kratcoski P.C.;
Dunn Kratcoski L.; Kratcoski P.C. (2020) Parole and Community Supervision. In:
Juvenile Delinquency. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31452-1_15
Maruschak, L.A.;
Bronson, J. (2017) HIV in Prisons, 2015-Statistical Tables. U.S. Department
of Justice (BoJS). HIV in Prisons, 2015 - Statistical
Tables (bjs.gov)
Ofer, U. (2019,
June 4). How the 1994 Crime Bill Fed the Mass Incarceration Crisis.
ACLU. American Civil Liberties Union (aclu.org)
OxfordBibliographies.com.
(2012). Mass Incarceration. Criminology. Doi:
10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0033
Park, K.; Meagher,
T. (2021, April 23). Coronavirus in Prisons. The Marshall Project. A State-by-State
Look at Coronavirus in Prisons | The Marshall Project
Saloner
B; Parish K; Ward J.A.; DiLaura G; Dolovich S. (2020) COVID-19 Cases and Deaths
in Federal and State Prisons. JAMA. 324(6):602–603.
doi:10.1001/jama.2020.12528
Sawyer, W.;
Wagner, P. (2020, March 4). Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020.
Prison Policy Initiative. Mass
Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020 | Prison Policy Initiative
Welsh,
W.; Harris, P. (2015). Criminal Justice Policy and Planning, 5th
Edition. New York City: Routledge.
White, M. (2020,
August 24). What is house arrest and how does it work? Felonies.org What Is House
Arrest and How Does It Work? | Felonies.org
Widra,
E. (2020, May 11). Since you asked: How many people aged 55 or older are in
prison, by state? Prison Policy Initiative. Since you asked: How many people aged 55
or older are in prison, by state? | Prison Policy Initiative
Information Sites
Coronavirus
Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | CDC
General
Information for Immunocompromised Persons | Cryptosporidium | Parasites | CDC
Pregnancy in Prison
Statistics (PIPS) | The Project (arrwip.org)
Risk
for COVID-19 Infection, Hospitalization, and Death By Age Group | CDC
The Price of
Prisons - The Price of Prisons - Prison spending in 2015 | Vera Institute
[1] OxfordBibliographies.com. (2012). Mass Incarceration.
Criminology. Doi: 10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0033
[2] Beck, A.J.; Blumstein, A. (2018).
Racial Disproportionality in U.S. State Prisons: Accounting for the Effects of
Racial and Ethnic Differences in Criminal Involvement, Arrests, Sentencing, and
Time Served. J Quant Criminol 34, 853–883. Doi:
10.1007/s10940-017-9357-6
[3] Cullen, J. (2018, July 20). The
History of Mass Incarceration. Brennan Center for Justice. The History of Mass Incarceration |
Brennan Center for Justice
[4] Cullen, J. (2018)
[5] Ofer, U. (2019, June 4). How
the 1994 Crime Bill Fed the Mass Incarceration Crisis. ACLU. How the 1994
Crime Bill Fed the Mass Incarceration Crisis | American Civil Liberties Union
(aclu.org)
[6] FairFightInitiavtive.org. (2021,
February 12). The History, Causes, and Facts on Mass Incarceration. Fair
Fight Initiative. The History, Causes, and Facts on
Mass Incarceration (fairfightinitiative.org)
[7] Sawyer, W.; Wagner, P. (2020,
March 4). Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020. Prison Policy
Initiative. Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie
2020 | Prison Policy Initiative
[9] Park, K.; Meagher, T. (2021, April
23). Coronavirus in Prisons. The Marshall Project. A State-by-State Look at
Coronavirus in Prisons | The Marshall Project
[10] Saloner B; Parish K; Ward J.A.;
DiLaura G; Dolovich S. (2020) COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in Federal and State
Prisons. JAMA. 324(6):602–603. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.12528
[11] See Awareness, Selection, and
Screening on Page 6
[12] Widra, E. (2020, May 11). Since
you asked: How many people aged 55 or older are in prison, by state? Prison
Policy Initiative. Since
you asked: How many people aged 55 or older are in prison, by state? | Prison
Policy Initiative
[14] Maruschak, L.A.; Bronson, J.
(2017) HIV in Prisons, 2015-Statistical Tables. U.S. Department of Justice
(BoJS). HIV in Prisons, 2015 - Statistical
Tables (bjs.gov)
[17] Kratcoski P.C.; Dunn Kratcoski L.;
Kratcoski P.C. (2020) Parole and Community Supervision. In: Juvenile
Delinquency. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31452-1_15
[18] White, M. (2020, August 24). What
is house arrest and how does it work? Felonies.org What Is House Arrest and How Does
It Work? | Felonies.org
[20] See Offender Risks/Needs
Assessment on Page 9-10.
[21] *Inmates may ask the prison
administration to assist in referral to the PRICE program. Prisons will be
asked to help inmates with this request as a part of the federal government’s
effort to reduce mass incarceration (assuming federal funding is granted).
[22] See Offender Risks/Needs
Assessment on Page 9-10.
[23] James, N. (2018). Risk and Needs
Assessment in the Federal Prison System. Congressional Research Service. Risk-and-Needs-Assessment-in-the-Federal.pdf
(justiceroundtable.org)
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